September 12, 2013

Association of HIV Infection, Hepatitis C Virus Infection, and Metabolic Factors With Liver Stiffness Measured by Transient Elastography

J Infect Dis. (2013) doi: 10.1093/infdis/jit357 First published online: July 30, 2013

M. Rami Bailony1, Rebecca Scherzer1,2, Gregory Huhn3, Michael W. Plankey4, Marion G. Peters1 and Phyllis C. Tien1,2

+ Author Affiliations

Abstract

Background. Few studies have examined the relationship of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) monoinfection and its associated perturbations with liver fibrosis.

Methods. Using multivariable linear regression, we examined the demographic, behavioral, metabolic and viral factors associated with transient elastography–measured liver stiffness in 314 participants (165 HIV positive/hepatitis C virus [HCV] negative, 78 HIV positive/HCV positive, 14 HIV negative/HCV positive, 57 HIV negative/HCV negative) in the Women's Interagency HIV Study.

Results. Compared with HIV negative/HCV negative women, HIV positive/HCV positive women had higher median liver stiffness values (7.1 vs 4.4 kPa; P < .001); HIV positive/HCV negative and HIV negative/HCV negative women had similar liver stiffness values (both 4.4 kPa; P = .94). HIV/HCV coinfection remained associated with higher liver stiffness values (74% higher; 95% confidence interval [CI], 49–104) even after multivariable adjustment. Among HCV positive women, waist circumference (per 10-cm increase) was associated with 18% (95% CI, 7.5%–30%) higher liver stiffness values after multivariable adjustment; waist circumference showed little association among HIV positive/HCV negative or HIV negative/HCV negative women. Among HIV positive/HCV negative women, history of AIDS (13%; 95% CI, 4% –27%) and HIV RNA (7.3%; 95% CI, 1.59%–13.3%, per 10-fold increase) were associated with greater liver stiffness.

Conclusions. HCV infection but not HIV infection is associated with greater liver stiffness when infected women are compared with those with neither infection. Our finding that waist circumference, a marker of central obesity, is associated with greater liver stiffness in HIV/HCV-coinfected but not HIV-monoinfected or women with neither infection suggests that in the absence of HCV-associated liver injury the adverse effects of obesity are lessened.

Received February 6, 2013. Accepted May 17, 2013.

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Kids Have Hep C Too

September 5, 2013

Adults are not the only ones who are infected with the Hepatitis C virus. Research shows that a majority of childhood cases are missed.

By Nicole Cutler L.Ac.

After decades of the Hepatitis C virus (HCV) going unnoticed by mainstream institutions, this illness is finally being recognized as a major health problem. An estimated five times more Americans are infected with Hepatitis C than HIV – the virus that causes AIDS, yet HCV is not routinely screened for. This is unfortunate, because the earlier Hepatitis C treatment commences the better chance there is of eliminating the virus. While prevention, detection and treatment of Hepatitis C are just now gaining momentum, these efforts primarily target adults. Hopefully, research released will encourage the medical community to expand Hepatitis C education and awareness to include children.

Continue reading this entire article …..

Women have higher rate of spontaneous clearance of hepatitis C virus

Provided by MedicalXpress

September 12, 2013

A study of patients infected with acute hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection found that women had higher rates of spontaneous viral clearance—undetectable levels of the virus without initiating drug therapy. Findings published in Hepatology, a journal of the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases, indicate that the gene IL28B (rs12979860) and HCV genotype 1 are also independent predictors of spontaneous HCV clearance.

In 2011, there were 1,229 cases of acute HCV reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Infection (CDC), which represents a 44% increase over 2010. Medical evidence indicates that 25% of those with acute HCV spontaneously clear their infection. Previous prospective studies link female sex, immune responses, neutralizing antibodies and genetics to viral clearance.

"Knowledge of acute HCV clearance is limited given that patients are typically asymptomatic during the initial stages of infection and at-risk populations, such as people who inject drugs, are often marginalized," explains lead author Dr. Jason Grebely at The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales in Australia. "Our research aims to advance understanding of time to and predictors of HCV clearance to improve early therapeutic intervention options."

Researchers used data from the InC3 Study—a collaboration of nine prospective studies from Australia, Canada, the Netherlands, and the U.S. funded by the National Institutes of Health and led by Professor Kimberly Page from the University of California San Francisco—which included participants with HCV and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) who were recruited between 1985 and 2010. The present study included 632 individuals diagnosed with acute HCV with 35% of the group being female and 82% Caucasian. Roughly 96% of participants had injected drugs, 47% were infected with HCV genotype 1 and 5% were co-infected with HIV.

Results show that 173 of the 632 participants had spontaneously cleared the virus during follow-up. At one year post-infection, 25% had HCV clearance. The average time to clearance among those who cleared HCV was 16.5 weeks, with 34%, 67% and 83% demonstrating clearance at 3, 6 and 12 months, respectively.

"Our findings indicate that females, those with the IL28B gene, and those with HCV genotype 1 are independent predictors of spontaneous clearance of acute HCV," concludes Prof. Kimberly Page. "Further research is necessary to understand the effect of sex in controlling HCV infection."

Explore further: Only half newly reported HCV cases receiving follow-up test

More information: "The Effects of Female Sex, Viral Genotype and Il28b Genotype on Spontaneous Clearance of Acute Hepatitis C Virus Infection." Jason Grebely, Kimberly Page, Rachel Sacks-Davis, Maarten Schim van der Loeff, Thomas M. Rice, Julie Bruneau, Meghan D. Morris, Behzad Hajarizadeh, Janaki Amin, Andrea L. Cox, Arthur Y. Kim, Barbara H. McGovern, Janke Schinkel, Jacob George, Naglaa H. Shoukry, Georg M. Lauer, Lisa Maher, Andrew R. Lloyd, Margaret Hellard, Gregory J. Dore and Maria Prins on behalf of the InC3 Study Group. Hepatology; ( DOI: 10.1002/hep.26639 ); Published Online: August 2, 2013.

Journal reference: Hepatology

Provided by Wiley

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Promising AIDS Vaccine Being Developed

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Image Credit: Thinkstock.com

September 11, 2013

Brett Smith for redOrbit.com – Your Universe Online

A promising new AIDS vaccine being developed at Oregon Health & Science University has demonstrated the capacity to effectively remove all traces of an AIDS-causing virus from non-human primates, according to a newly published report in the journal Nature.

The vaccine is being tested on a primate form of HIV, called simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), which causes AIDS in monkeys. After working further to refine the vaccine, OHSU scientists said they hoped an HIV-form of the potential vaccine could soon be tested in human subjects.

“To date, HIV infection has only been cured in a very small number of highly-publicized but unusual clinical cases in which HIV-infected individuals were treated with anti-viral medicines very early after the onset of infection or received a stem cell transplant to combat cancer,” said Dr. Louis Picker, associate director of the OHSU Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute. “This latest research suggests that certain immune responses elicited by a new vaccine may also have the ability to completely remove HIV from the body.”

In conjunction with researchers at two other American institutions, the Picker lab’s approach uses the cytomegalovirus (CMV), a common virus carried by a large percentage of the population that typically causes no symptoms. The researchers found that pairing CMV with SIV had a unique and desirable effect. CMV engineered to express SIV proteins results in the generation and indefinite maintenance of so-called “effector memory” T-cells that are designed to seek out and destroying SIV-infected cells.

T-cells are a vital component of the body’s immune system. Unfortunately, T-cells drawn out as an immune system response to conventional vaccines of SIV are not able to eradicate the virus. However, the SIV-specific T-cells elicited by the altered CMV were different. About half of the monkeys given highly pathogenic SIV after being vaccinated with the modified vaccine still became infected with SIV, but over time their bodies eliminated all traces of the virus.

The researchers said the ‘virus hunters’ of the affected primates’ bodies were given a much better targeting system by the new vaccine candidate – along with better weapons to locate and destroy their elusive enemy.

“Through this method we were able to teach the monkey’s body to better ‘prepare its defenses’ to combat the disease,” Picker said. “Our vaccine mobilized a T-cell response that was able to overtake the SIV invaders in 50 percent of the cases treated.”

“Moreover, in those cases with a positive response, our testing suggests SIV was banished from the host,” he added. “We are hopeful that pairing our modified CMV vector with HIV will lead to a similar result in humans.”

The vaccine researchers said they are now investigating the potential reasons why only a fraction of the animals treated had a positive reaction to the vaccine. They added that the effectiveness of the vaccine candidate could potentially be boosted.

Speaking in front of the 246th gathering of the American Chemical Society in Indianapolis, Stanford chemist Paul Wender said AIDS might be curable in two years thanks to prostratin, a drug candidate made from the bark of a Samoan tree.

Wender said preliminary tests are currently being done on animals, but blood from AIDS patients who have been on immunosuppressive therapy is also being tested and the results appear positive.

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Infected health worker sparks UK-wide hep C investigation

Provided by Nursing Times

September, 2013 | By Steve Ford

Around 3,000 patients have been contacted in Wales over the risk they may have been infected with hepatitis C by a retired healthcare worker who worked in obstetrics and gynaecology.

To date, two patients in Wales have been identified as having hepatitis C, which is known to have been transmitted from the healthcare worker. 

In a written statement, the Welsh Government said today that it had it been made aware of a “serious incident” reported by Aneurin Bevan University Health Board, involving a retired healthcare worker who has been diagnosed with hepatitis C.

The healthcare worker’s main employment in Wales was between May 1984 and July 2003 at Caerphilly District Miners’ Hospital, but also for a short time at the former East Glamorgan Hospital and Wrexham Maelor Hospital. 

During the healthcare worker’s career, time was also spent working in England, Scotland and Northern Ireland. 

Aneurin Bevan University Health Board is writing to at least 3,000 patients this week and a further 2,000 patients next week, who have been identified as having definitely or possibly received certain procedures from the healthcare worker.

The healthcare worker also worked at other hospitals across the UK prior to working in Wales, including 11 hospitals in England between 1975 and 1983.

Similar “lookback” exercises to contact patients are taking place in parallel across all affected hospitals in England, Scotland and Northern Ireland.

Public Health England said less than 400 women in England have so far been identified as having definitely or possibly had operations conducted by the affected healthcare worker.

People who receive a letter are being offered counselling and advice on what to do next. 

A confidential telephone helpline number has been set up and clinics established to provide testing for those that have received a letter.

The identity of the healthcare worker is not being released due to confidentiality rights, the Welsh Government said. The individual had no symptoms and was unaware of the infection until after they retired.

In a statement, Public Health England medical director Dr Paul Cosford said he wanted to “emphasise that the risk of infection is very small”.

Women who came into contact with the infected individual via an obstetric or gynaecological operation, or while giving birth, were being offered testing “purely as a precaution”, he said.

“Around one in 250 adults in England have chronic hepatitis C infection and it does not automatically lead to health problems. Treatment can help clear the infection in up to 80% cases,” he added.

Since 2007, all staff new to the NHS should be offered a hepatitis C test and anyone performing surgical procedures for the first time should be tested by their employing trust or health board. 

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Hepatitis C virus therapy is associated with lower health care costs not only in noncirrhotic patients but also in patients with end-stage liver disease

Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics

Volume 38, Issue 7, pages 784–793, October 2013

Original Article

S. C. Gordon1,*, F. M. Hamzeh2, P. J. Pockros3, R. S. Hoop2, A. R. Buikema4, E. J. Korner2, N. A. Terrault5

Article first published online: 25 AUG 2013

DOI: 10.1111/apt.12454

© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

Summary

Background

The effect of anti-viral treatment on downstream costs for hepatitis C virus (HCV)-infected patients is unknown.

Aim

To evaluate follow-up costs in patients with chronic HCV, stratified by liver disease severity.

Methods

Using a US private insurance database, mean all-cause per-patient-per-month (PPPM) US (2010) medical costs were calculated for HCV-infected persons who did and did not receive anti-HCV treatment between January 2002 and August 2010. Analysis was stratified by liver disease severity [noncirrhotic disease (NCD), compensated cirrhosis (CC) or end-stage liver disease (ESLD)] defined by ICD-9 and CPT codes.

Results

A total of 33 309 patients were included (78% NCD, 7% CC and 15% ESLD); 4111 individuals (12%) received anti-HCV treatment during the 2-year baseline period. Mean PPPM follow-up health care costs were significantly lower among treated patients with NCD ($900 vs. $1378 in untreated patients, P < 0.001) and ESLD ($3634 vs. $5071, P < 0.001) groups but not in the CC group ($1404 vs. $1795, P < 0.071; t-test). In a multivariable model adjusted for demographic characteristics, comorbidities, index date and geographical region, incremental cost ratios for total health care costs differed significantly (P < 0.001) between treated and untreated patients in the NCD and ESLD groups but not in the CC group. From this model, mean PPPM total health care costs between treated and untreated patients were $885 and $1370 in the NCD, $1369 and $1802 in the CC, and $3547 and $5137 in the ESLD groups, respectively.

Conclusions

Anti-HCV therapy was associated with lower follow-up US health care costs, and these savings were independent of baseline patient comorbidities and stage of disease.

Introduction

Most patients with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection in the United States were born between 1945 and 1964 and acquired HCV between 1960 and 1980.[1] As a result, the prevalence of the long-term cirrhotic complications of chronic HCV infection in this cohort, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and other liver-related morbidity and mortality, is increasing.[2-4] This trend has important implications for the health care system in the United States. HCV infection is the leading indication for liver transplantation and the most common cause of HCC.[5-9] Patients with detectable HCV infection have a significantly increased risk of dying from hepatic and extrahepatic causes, including cardiovascular disease, than patients who are HCV negative.[10-12]

Effective treatment is available for chronic HCV infection, but only a small proportion of patients receive treatment.[13-15] This is due to both underdiagnosis and undertreatment and reflects a lack of awareness on the part of patients, barriers to accessing treatment, and the complexity and tolerability of current treatment.[15-17] The prospect of more effective and better tolerated therapies has led some physicians to recommend treatment deferral.[18] Among those patients who do receive treatment and have advanced fibrosis, achievement of a sustained virological response significantly reduces the cumulative rate of HCC, transplantation and liver-related death.[19-21]

Hepatitis C virus infection increases health care costs,[22-24] and we and others have shown that health care costs increase in a stepwise fashion as HCV-related liver disease progresses.[23, 25] Thus, it seems plausible that treatment of HCV infection may delay or halt disease progression and would be associated with significant reductions in health care costs. However, there are few data that support this assumption. Using a large comprehensive health care database of patients with chronic HCV infection, we evaluated the impact of anti-HCV treatment on health care costs in patients with chronic HCV infection stratified by liver disease severity.

Methods

In a prior study, we tested the hypothesis that direct medical costs increase with disease severity, and the study provided estimates of those costs.[25] During this study, we also observed that treated patients appeared to have lower costs than untreated patients. Therefore, in the present analysis, we tested the hypothesis that patients who are treated for their HCV infection have lower downstream direct medical costs regardless of demographic characteristics or comorbidities than patients who are not treated.

Claims data

Deidentified medical and pharmacy claims enrolment information and mortality data were obtained for commercial health plan members enrolled between January 1, 2002, and August 31, 2010, in a large US private insurance database affiliated with OptumInsight (Eden Prairie, MN, USA).[25] The study database included claims for all prescription medications and medical services submitted by providers to constituent health plans for payment.

Data were collected from all available health care sites including physicians' offices, emergency departments and hospitals for all types of services. Claims analyses were based on amounts paid by health plans and patient responsibility amounts; costs paid by other health plans and Medicare were not included. In-patient stays were identified using a combination of AMA site codes, revenue codes and provider specialty codes, which indicated stays in an acute care or long-term care facility. ER visits were identified by a combination of AMA site codes and CPT codes indicating emergency department visits. Office visits and outpatient visits were identified using AMA site codes indicating each type of visit.

Patients included in the analysis were commercial health plan members with chronic HCV infection as evidenced by HCV-specific ICD-9 codes from January 1, 2003, to August 31, 2010. Codes that support the diagnosis of chronic HCV infection were also required for inclusion. The requirement for ≥1 HCV-specific ICD-9 code and ≥1 code on a nondiagnostic claim allowed for the exclusion of patients who only had rule-out codes for HCV infection. The complete list of ICD-9 codes used to identify patients with chronic HCV infection is included in Table 1.

Table 1. HCV diagnostic codes used to identify patients with chronic HCV infectiona
Inclusion criteria (one of the following) Description (ICD-9-CM code)
  1. HCV, hepatitis C virus.

  2. a

    From January 1, 2003, to August 31, 2010.

Single claim with one of these chronic HCV diagnosis codes Chronic hepatitis C with hepatic coma (070.44) Chronic hepatitis C without mention of hepatic coma (070.54)
Two claims with one of these unspecified HCV diagnosis codes on separate dates of service Hepatitis C carrier (V02.62) Unspecified viral hepatitis C without hepatic coma (070.70)Unspecified viral hepatitis C with hepatic coma (070.71)
Two claims with one of these acute and unspecified HCV diagnosis codes spaced ≥6 months apart Acute hepatitis C with hepatic coma (070.41)Acute hepatitis C without mention of hepatic coma (070.51)Hepatitis C carrier (V02.62)Unspecified viral hepatitis C without hepatic coma (070.70)Unspecified viral hepatitis C with hepatic coma (070.71)

Disease severity groups

Patients were assigned to one of three disease severity categories according to predefined criteria established by a consensus panel of three clinical hepatologists: noncirrhotic disease (NCD), compensated cirrhosis (CC) or end-stage liver disease (ESLD). Patients included in the NCD cohort had no codes associated with conditions or procedures related to cirrhosis, decompensated cirrhosis, HCC or liver transplantation. Patients included in the CC group were required to have a diagnostic code indicating the presence of cirrhosis, whereas those included in the ESLD group were required to have diagnostic or procedural codes associated with decompensated cirrhosis, HCC or liver transplantation. A complete list of conditions used to assign patients to one of the three disease severity groups is in Table 2.[25]

Table 2. Conditions or procedures used to assign patients to liver disease severity groupsa
Noncirrhotic disease Compensated cirrhosis End-stage liver disease
  1. Patients were assigned to the highest level severity category for which they had a qualifying condition or procedure.

  2. a

    Assignment to a liver disease severity group was based on diagnosis or procedure codes.

No listed conditions or procedures Cirrhosis Liver transplant
    Hepatocellular carcinoma
    Liver failure, including hepatorenal syndrome
    Hepatic encephalopathy
    Portal hypertension
    Oesophageal varices
    Other gastrointestinal haemorrhage
    Ascites
    Other sequelae of chronic liver disease
    Abdominal paracentesis procedures
    Shunts and catheter procedures
    Treatment of varices
    Portal decompression procedures

Patients in each disease severity group were assigned an index date. For patients in the NCD group, the index date was assigned as the date of the first claim with an HCV-related diagnostic code after the patient was continuously enrolled in the health plan for ≥2 years. For patients in the CC group, the index date was assigned as the date of the first claim for cirrhosis; for patients in the ESLD group, the index date was assigned as the date of the first claim for a condition or procedure indicating ESLD. Patients had been observed for ≥2 years before the index date to measure baseline comorbidities and treatment and for ≥30 days after and including the index date to measure outcomes. By definition, patients in the CC group had NCD during the baseline period and patients in the ESLD group had either cirrhosis or NCD during the baseline period.

Treatment cohorts

Within each disease severity group, two treatment cohorts were identified: (i) patients treated during the baseline period (treated cohort) and (ii) patients not treated during the baseline period (untreated cohort). To ensure that patients in the treated cohort had completed a treatment regimen during the baseline period, only patients with evidence of treatment in both the baseline and follow-up periods were excluded. Patients in the untreated cohort who received treatment in the follow-up period were retained in the main analysis but excluded as part of a sensitivity analysis.

Outcomes

For each patient, follow-up health care costs were calculated based on health plan – paid amounts reported on all claims submitted for payment during the follow-up period. Indirect costs were not included. Costs were adjusted to 2010 US$ using the annual medical care component of the consumer price index to account for inflation during the study.

Both all-cause and HCV-related costs were measured. Costs were considered HCV related if any HCV-related ICD-9 code or CPT code was listed in a primary or secondary position on the claim (Tables 1 and 2).

Follow-up costs are reported as per-patient-per-month (PPPM, 2010 US$) to adjust for the variable amount of time that patients were enrolled in the health plan following the index date.

Statistical analyses

Analyses were conducted from a health plan perspective. Follow-up health care costs were compared between the treated and untreated cohorts within each disease severity group. Mean differences in all-cause and HCV-related follow-up costs between treated and untreated patients were evaluated by t-test. In addition, follow-up costs were modelled using multivariable methods to further adjust for demographics, geographical location and comorbidities. Comorbidity covariates included in the models were those that might influence treatment decisions as determined by clinical hepatologists (SCG, NAT, PJP): Quan-Charlson comorbidity score (a validated comorbidity index that predicts 10-year mortality[26]), HIV/AIDS, cancer (excluding HCC and superficial skin tumours or cancer in situ), alcohol and substance abuse, psychiatric disorders, diabetes, cardiovascular disease and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). All comorbidities were identified based on ICD-9 codes reported during the baseline period.

In the multivariable analyses, costs were modelled using a generalised linear model with a log link to account for the highly skewed nature of health care cost data.[27] Adjusted costs were predicted for the treated and untreated cohorts within each disease severity group using a recycled prediction method.[28]

Because some patients in the untreated cohort received treatment during the follow-up period, a sensitivity analysis was conducted that excluded these patients to determine whether the observed differences in follow-up costs might be attributable to the cost of treatment.

Results

A total of 25 966 with NCD, 2219 with CC and 5124 with ESLD were included in this analysis (Figure 1). Among patients with NCD, 12% (n = 3001) were treated in the baseline period. Among patients with CC and ESLD, 12% (n = 261) and 17% (n = 849), respectively, were treated during the baseline period, before the initial diagnosis of their respective liver disease severity level. Among patients not treated in the baseline period, 13% of patients with NCD (n = 3014), 30% of patients with CC (n = 595) and 12% of patients with ESLD (n = 505) were treated during the follow-up period. The mean duration of follow-up in treated and untreated patients was 773 and 734 days, respectively, among patients with NCD; 609 and 652 days, respectively, among patients with CC; and 646 and 680 days, respectively, among patients with ESLD.

apt12454-fig-0001

Figure 1. US patients (n = 33 309) included in the analysis, by liver disease severity, for the period January 1, 2002, to August 31, 2010. Patients treated during both baseline and follow-up were excluded (1916 patients with noncirrhotic disease, 166 patients with compensated cirrhosis and 353 patients with end-stage liver disease). HCV, hepatitis C virus.

The baseline characteristics of treated and untreated patients in each of the three disease severity groups are in Table 3. Among patients with NCD and ESLD, the mean age was significantly lower (P < 0.001) among patients who received anti-HCV treatment compared with untreated patients; however, among patients with CC, the mean age was significantly higher among treated patients (P = 0.026). In the NCD group, both the proportion of male patients (P = 0.006) and the mean Quan-Charlson comorbidity score (P < 0.001) were significantly higher among treated vs. untreated patients. In addition, significantly fewer treated patients with NCD had associated ICD-9 codes for HIV/AIDS (P < 0.001), diabetes mellitus (P < 0.001), cardiovascular disease (P < 0.001) and COPD (P = 0.007) compared with untreated patients with NCD.

Table 3. (Click to view table) Patient and treatment characteristics by disease severity

Of note, a lower proportion of treated patients had associated ICD-9 codes for alcohol/substance abuse compared with untreated patients in both the NCD (P < 0.001) and CC groups (P = 0.047). In contrast, significantly more treated patients within each of the three disease severity groups had associated ICD-9 codes for psychiatric disease (NCD, P = 0.002; CC, P = 0.024; ESLD, P < 0.001; Table 3).

Unadjusted mean PPPM health care costs

Mean PPPM total health care costs, medical costs and HCV-related health care costs during the follow-up period were highest in patients with ESLD and lowest in patients with NCD (Table 4). Mean PPPM total health care costs were significantly greater in untreated patients both in the NCD group (P < 0.001) and the ESLD group (P < 0.001) (Table 4). Mean PPPM medical costs were significantly higher among untreated patients in the NCD (P < 0.001) and ESLD (P < 0.001) groups but not in the CC group (P = 0.947). Mean PPPM HCV-related health care costs were also significantly higher among untreated patients in each of the three disease severity groups (NCD, P < 0.001; CC, P = 0.003; ESLD, P < 0.001; Table 4).

Table 4. (Click to view table) Mean follow-up all-cause PPPM costs (2010 US$) by treatment history and  liver disease severity

A proportion of patients who were not treated during the baseline period received treatment in the follow-up period (13% of NCD, 30% of CC and 12% of ESLD). To determine if differences in costs during the follow-up period were attributable to follow-up treatment costs, patients receiving treatment in the follow-up period were excluded in a sensitivity analysis, with similar results. Specifically, unadjusted costs were significantly lower among patients who received treatment in the NCD and ESLD groups, with no statistically significant difference in cost between treated and untreated patients in the CC group (data not shown).

Adjusted health care cost models

After adjustment for demographic characteristics, comorbidities, index year, geographical region and treatment, there were statistically significant differences (P < 0.001) in incremental total health care costs between treated and untreated patients within the NCD and ESLD groups but not within the CC group (P = 0.057) (Table 5, Figure 2).

Table 5. (Click to view table) reated PPPM minus untreated PPPM

apt12454-fig-0002

Figure 2. Predicted total costs [per-patient-per-month (PPPM), 2010 US$] by baseline treatment in patients with noncirrhotic disease (NCD), compensated cirrhosis (CC) and end-stage liver disease (ESLD). Covariates adjusted for in the analysis included age, sex, geographical region, index year, baseline comorbidities and baseline treatment for hepatitis C virus infection. , treated; □, untreated.

Patients with NCD who received anti-HCV treatment were estimated to have total health care costs that were approximately 35% lower (cost ratio, 0.646; 95% CI, 0.586–0.712) than that for untreated patients with NCD (Figure 2). Medical costs (cost ratio, 0.713; 95% CI, 0.631–0.806) and HCV-related total costs (cost ratio, 0.380; 95% CI, 0.329–0.439) were also significantly lower in treated than in untreated patients (Figure 2).

Similarly, patients in the ESLD group who received anti-HCV treatment during the baseline period were estimated to have total health care costs that were approximately 30% lower (cost ratio, 0.691; 95% CI, 0.579–0.824) when compared with that of untreated patients with ESLD during the follow-up period (Table 5). Medical costs (cost ratio, 0.684; 95% CI, 0.564–0.830) and HCV-related total costs (cost ratio, 0.657; 95% CI, 0.522–0.828) were also significantly lower in treated than in untreated patients with ESLD (Table 5, Figure 2).

In contrast, the estimated difference in total health care costs between treated and untreated patients in the CC group was not statistically significant (cost ratio, 0.760; 95% CI, 0.573–1.008; Figure 2). There was also no statistically significant difference in medical costs between treated and untreated patients (cost ratio, 1.043; 95% CI, 0.716–1.518). However, HCV-related costs were significantly lower among treated vs. untreated patients in this group (cost ratio, 0.539; 95% CI, 0.386–0.753; Figure 2).

Discussion

This was an exploratory analysis to assess whether or not HCV treatment might be associated with lower downstream direct medical costs resulting from prescription medications, physician office visits, emergency department use and hospitalisation for patients with chronic HCV infection. In this analysis, we showed that HCV treatment in the baseline period was associated with significant reductions in subsequent all-cause direct health care costs in the follow-up period. Among patients with NCD, all-cause follow-up costs were 35% lower in treated patients than in untreated patients. The reduction in costs was also evident in patients with ESLD, and the magnitude of the reduction (30%) was similar to that in the NCD group. However, although the mean PPPM all-cause health care cost was 22% lower in treated patients with CC ($1404) compared with untreated patients with CC ($1795), this difference was not statistically significant (P = 0.057). Because it is clinically unlikely that patients with CC would differ from the other groups with respect to costs, we believe that the most likely reason for the lack of a statistically significant difference between treated and untreated patients with CC is the small number of treated patients (261), which reduced the power to detect statistically significant differences between treated and untreated patients.

These results build on previous analyses[25] that showed that all-cause health care costs associated with chronic HCV infection are driven by disease severity. The previous analysis showed that the mean annual all-cause health care costs associated with chronic HCV infection exceeded $24 000 and that the mean annual costs increased in a stepwise fashion and were approximately $17 000, $23 000 and $60 000 for those with NCD, CC and ESLD respectively.[25] A 48-week course of dual peginterferon plus ribavirin would cost approximately $48 000 in US$ 2010, which is approximately $1000 per week, and this would increase by an additional $1100 (US$ 2010) per week if either telaprevir or boceprevir was included in the regimen.[29]

The analysis showed that only 12% of patients with chronic HCV infection received treatment during the baseline period and that altogether approximately 25% of patients received treatment during the baseline or follow-up periods. The nature of a claims database does not allow us to determine how many patients were considered for treatment, how many patients were offered treatment or the specific reasons why treatment was not offered. Regardless, the frequency of treatment was very low, especially given the recognised clinical benefits that can be achieved if treatment is successful.

Comorbidities are common in patients with chronic HCV infection.[30] Indeed, an analysis of data from a cohort of 7411 patients with chronic HCV infection showed that HCV-infected patients had twice the burden of comorbidities compared with uninfected control patients, 99.4% of patients with chronic HCV infection had ≥1 comorbid condition and 52% had 6–15 comorbidities.[31] Many comorbid conditions can complicate or may be contraindications to treatment with peginterferon and ribavirin.[30] Thus, it is not surprising that there were differences in the baseline prevalence of concomitant diseases among those who were and were not treated. It was also not surprising that fewer patients in the NCD group with diagnostic codes for HIV/AIDS, alcohol/substance abuse, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease and COPD received treatment compared with untreated patients. However, the multivariable statistical models were adjusted for the presence of comorbid conditions to ensure that these factors were not driving the differences in costs observed between treated and untreated patients.

It is important to note that the results obtained with t tests and multivariable models were similar (Table 5), which suggests that the covariates in the multivariable model did not account for the differences in total direct medical costs between the treated and untreated groups. However, in an observational study of this type, there are unmeasured confounders.

This study has limitations that are common in observational studies using administrative claims data. The use of ICD-9 codes rather than liver biopsy to assign patients to disease severity groups may have resulted in misclassification of disease severity. The number of patients with claims for anti-HCV therapy can be determined from the database, but it is not possible to determine whether patients took the medication as prescribed, had adjustments in dosage or had a virological response to treatment. It is also not possible to determine why a medication was prescribed or whether a specific medication was HCV treatment related (e.g. a prescription for an antidepressant for a patient who recently started anti-HCV treatment). In conclusion, in this exploratory analysis, anti-HCV therapy during the baseline period was associated with lower all-cause direct medical costs during the follow-up period in patients with NCD and ESLD. These results suggest that increasing the proportion of patients who receive treatment may be beneficial. Further studies are required to confirm these findings and extend them to include regimens that include direct-acting anti-viral agents. The potential availability of more potent and less toxic anti-viral regimens should enable larger numbers of infected individuals to undergo treatment, with the prospect of lower downstream health care costs.

Authorship

Guarantor of the article: Stuart C. Gordon.

Author contributions: Drs Gordon, Pockros and Terrault were involved in the study concept and design; analysis and interpretation of data; drafting of the manuscript; statistical analyses; and critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content. Dr Hamzeh, Dr Korner and Mr Hoop were involved in the study concept and design; acquisition of data; analysis and interpretation of data; drafting of the manuscript; critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content; statistical analysis; obtained funding; technical or material support; and study supervision. Ms Buikema was involved in the study concept and design; acquisition of data; analysis and interpretation of data; drafting of the manuscript; critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content; statistical analysis; and technical support. All authors have reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Acknowledgements

Declaration of personal interests: Dr Gordon has reported that he has received grant/research support and honoraria from, served as a consultant/advisor and member of Data Monitoring Board for Abbvie Pharmaceuticals, Bristol-Myers Squibb, CVS Caremark, Gilead, GlaxoSmithKline, Intercept Pharmaceuticals, Merck, Roche, Tibotec/Janssen and Vertex. Dr Terrault has reported that she has received grant support from, served as a consultant/advisor for Abbott, Bitotest, Bristol Myers Squibb, Eisai, Gilead, Merck, Novartis, Roche/Genentech, Siemens and Vertex. Dr Pockros has reported that he has received grant/research support and honoraria, served as a consultant for, and received unrestricted CME support from Roche/Genentech, Merck and Vertex. Dr Hamzeh, Dr Korner and Mr Hoop are employees of Genentech, Inc. Ms. Buikema is an employee of OptumInsight.

Declaration of funding interests: Third-party writing assistance for this manuscript, furnished by Blair Jarvis, MSc, ELS and Sue Currie, PhD, Health Interactions, all of which was funded by Genentech Inc. and F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd.

References

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